Binder forms interparticulate bridges so granules compress well and tablets have adequate strength.

HLB values of ~8–18 favor O/W emulsions; lower HLB values favor W/O.

Apparatus II is the rotating paddle; basket is Apparatus I.

CFCs were phased out; HFAs are the standard propellants now.

Cocoa butter (theobroma oil) melts just below body temperature (~31–34 °C), aiding drug release.

TZDs are PPAR-γ agonists that enhance insulin sensitivity in adipose and muscle.

ACE degrades bradykinin; inhibition raises bradykinin → dry cough/angioedema.

Amiodarone mainly blocks K+ channels (Class III), prolonging repolarization.

Phenytoin exhibits capacity-limited metabolism → zero-order kinetics near saturation.

Buprenorphine is a high-affinity partial μ-agonist; ceiling effect limits respiratory depression.

Menthol is the major monoterpene in peppermint oil with cooling, carminative action.

Sennosides are anthraquinone glycosides causing stimulant laxative effect.

Ginsenosides are triterpenoid saponins credited with adaptogenic effects.

Paracetamol is an anilide derivative (p-acetamidophenol).

INH is the hydrazide of isonicotinic acid.

Metformin is a biguanide that decreases hepatic gluconeogenesis and improves insulin sensitivity.

Mixed-case “tALL-mAN” highlights dissimilar letters to minimize LASA errors.

Adult dose is 0.3–0.5 mg IM of 1 mg/mL (1:1000) solution in the mid-thigh.

Reconcile at admission, transfer, and discharge to prevent unintended discrepancies.

Regulatory BE focuses on exposure: AUC and Cmax (log-transformed) within 80–125%.

PFK-1 controls glycolytic flux and is allosterically regulated.

Erythrocytes live ~120 days; HbA1c mirrors mean glucose over 8–12 weeks.

Only leucine and lysine are purely ketogenic; leucine is the correct choice here.

Pressurized steam at 121 °C/15 psi for 15 min ensures sterilization.

Staphylococci form clusters; streptococci form chains/pairs.

The Rideal–Walker phenol coefficient compares disinfectant potency to phenol.

IR absorbances are reported as wavenumbers (cm⁻¹).

RP-HPLC uses nonpolar (e.g., C18) stationary with polar mobile phases.

Sulfate is precipitated as barium sulfate for comparison with a standard.

LOD detects presence; LOQ is the lowest amount measured with acceptable accuracy/precision.

An indicator electrode tracks EMF; inflection indicates equivalence.

Schedule M prescribes GMP and facility requirements for drug manufacture.

Schedule Y provides guidance for clinical trials/BA-BE studies.

PCI is a statutory body under the Pharmacy Act, 1948.

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act was enacted in 1985.

The National Pharmaceutical Pricing Authority enforces DPCO price ceilings.

Re = inertial/viscous forces; determines laminar vs turbulent flow.

Supersaturation provides the chemical potential difference for nucleation/crystal growth.

HEPA efficiency is ≥99.97% for the most penetrating 0.3 µm particles.

Hot air passes over trays; convective heat and mass transfer drive drying.