Membrane filtration is preferred for ophthalmic solutions since it avoids heat degradation of sensitive drugs.

Air is commonly used to fluidize particles in a fluidized bed dryer for efficient drying.

Electrolytes like potassium chloride reduce zeta potential and promote flocculation.

Enteric-coated capsules protect drug from stomach acid and dissolve in intestine.

Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) is a common hydrophilic polymer for sustained release formulations.

Type I borosilicate glass has high resistance to leaching, suitable for parenterals.

Cmax, Tmax, and AUC are compared to establish bioequivalence of formulations.

Albumin microspheres are used as a controlled release drug delivery system.

Reserpine is the major indole alkaloid found in Rauwolfia serpentina.

Digitalis leaf contains cardiac glycosides like digoxin and digitoxin.

Senna leaves and pods contain sennosides, anthraquinone glycosides used as laxatives.

Ferric chloride gives bluish-black or green color with tannins.

Clove contains volatile oil rich in eugenol.

Phenylalanine converts to tyrosine, which is precursor for dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine.

Flumazenil is a benzodiazepine receptor antagonist used in overdose.

Aminoglycosides like gentamicin bind 30S subunit causing misreading of mRNA.

Furosemide is a loop diuretic inhibiting Na⁺-K⁺-2Cl⁻ symporter in loop of Henle.

Tetracyclines deposit in fetal bones and teeth, hence contraindicated.

Atenolol selectively blocks β1 receptors, reducing cardiac workload.

Vitamin D prevents rickets by regulating calcium and phosphate metabolism.

Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) is derived from riboflavin (Vitamin B2).

Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA.

Albumin maintains colloidal osmotic pressure of plasma.

Warfarin inhibits vitamin K epoxide reductase, reducing clotting factor synthesis.

Niacin deficiency causes pellagra, characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.

Penicillin G is a natural penicillin obtained from Penicillium chrysogenum.

Omeprazole inhibits H⁺/K⁺ ATPase enzyme in gastric parietal cells.

Lutrol F127 forms thermo-responsive in-situ gel at body temperature.

Schedule H drugs are prescription-only and cannot be sold without a doctor’s prescription.

Schedule M specifies GMP requirements for pharmaceutical industries.

Azithromycin is a macrolide antibiotic acting on the 50S ribosomal subunit.

Hardness test measures crushing strength of tablets.

The liver is the main site of biotransformation of drugs.

Morphine is a strong agonist at μ-opioid receptors producing analgesia.

Ceftriaxone is a third-generation cephalosporin antibiotic.

Spironolactone is a potassium-sparing diuretic acting as an aldosterone antagonist.

Pralidoxime reactivates acetylcholinesterase inhibited by organophosphates.

Oxytocin is secreted from the posterior pituitary and is important in labor and lactation.

Iodine is an essential micronutrient required for synthesis of T3 and T4.

Isoniazid depletes pyridoxine (Vitamin B6), leading to peripheral neuropathy; supplementation prevents this adverse effect.